Comparison of Organizational Strategies

	Traditional	Relational	Cultural
Names	Scientific Management Directed Management Hard Management Theory X	Human Relations School Humanistic Management Soft Management Theory Y	Visionary Management Cultural Management Theory Z
The picture of human beings	“Scientific management is based on the idea that the average worker is a lazy slob who is only redeemed by greed.” M & W “Men will never do good unless necessity drives them to it.”—Machiavelli, Discourses, I.3 (p. 112).	“Humanistic management, on the other-hand, is based on the idea that the average worker is a model human being, intelligent, creative, and self-motivating.” M & W	Human beings are "symbol-using animals" (Kenneth Burke) and are “stubborn seekers of meaning” (John Gardner quoted in Peters and Waterman)
The picture of the organization	A machine: a place for everyone and everyone in their place A bureaucracy: “capable of attaining the highest degree of efficiency and is in this sense formally the most rational known means of carrying out imperative control over human beings”	A place of personal fulfillment and self-actualization: “an organization in which human values are as important as production values. The pyramid structure may still apply, but . . . individuals participate in organizational decision making and evaluation” (Littlejohn on Argyris’ picture of the ideal organization)	“Systems composed of ideas, the meaning of which must be managed” (Joanne Martin quoted in Peters and Waterman).
The picture of the manager	“The job of the manager is to break down jobs into their component parts, so that even the dumbest persons can master them, and design incentive systems, so that even the laziest will exert themselves.” M & W	“The job of the manager is to ensure that work is interesting enough to bring out the best in the firm’s employees, by dint of devolving decisions to shop-floor workers, creating self-managing teams, and encouraging workers to make suggestions about how the company might be improved.” M & W	The manager is a rhetorical actor: “The [leader] not only creates the rational and tangible aspects of organisations, such as structure and technology, but also is the creator of symbols, ideologies, language, beliefs, rituals, and myths” (Andrew Pettigrew quoted in Peters and Waterman).
Key ideas	Specialization Hierarchicalization Centralization	Higher order needs over monetary incentives Social factors affect behavior. Communication affects behavior. Decentralization Flattened Structures Participatory Decision Making Use of informal communication networks	Meaning Culture Symbolic Influence Administrative Rhetoric
Examples	Taylor and Scientific Management Weber and Bureaucracy Reengineering, which tried to adapt Taylorism to the age of the computer.	Hawthorne Effect with Elton Mayo, Kurt Lewin Higher-level needs with Maslow, Herzberg, Argyris Contingency Leadership by Feidler Barnard, the last of the “practical theorists” Theory Y by McGregor Empowerment by Peters	Peters and Waterman, In Search of Excellence Collins and Porras, Built to Last
Means of Motivation and Control	Rules Rewards Roles	Fulfill higher order needs More than money Do more things Do better things Change the group	Unobtrusive Control—Precision Instruments of Management “Participative Culture Making” Symbolic Means of Influence Metaphor Myth Rituals and Ceremonies Purpose Values Vision
Leadership	“The Commander” Focus on management over leadership Fayol’s Five Functions Plan Command Control Coordinate Organize	Transactional Contingent Employee-centered Communication-centered	Visionary Transformational Not necessarily charismatic, but a “clock builder”
Strengths	Provides the structure that all human beings need. Can produce efficient output in for a limited time in stable situations. If properly applied, need not create labor-management tension.	More precise instruments of influence Higher job satisfaction More effective than traditional in rapidly changing environments	Provides significant influential “leverage”—a lot for a little in the long run. Fills in the gaps that can never be covered by traditional instruments of management. Necessary to gain an advantage in a fluid, competitive business environment. Can effectively counter the over-emphasis on self-interest that can arise from traditional and relational methods.
Weaknesses	Frequent communication breakdowns Filtering Paradox Structural Barriers Trained Incapacity Ill-suited for better-educated employees Sacrifices flexibility and responsiveness for consistency and predictability	No support for any improvement in productivity or performance Can become self-defeating if not tied to clear objectives Fails to account for affect of structure and function Assumes that happiness and the absence of conflict are necessary	To be effective, requires skills most managers don’t have. Does not address the specific discursive mechanics of management. Difficult to use because of the wide number of variables. If not complete, can be rejected by employees and have a negative effect. Can lead to abuses as owners and managers use culture to advance partisan interests.

Traditional

Relational

Cultural

Names

Scientific Management

Directed Management

Hard Management

Theory X

Human Relations School

Humanistic Management

Soft Management

Theory Y

Visionary Management

Cultural Management

Theory Z

The picture of human beings

“Scientific management is based on the idea that the average worker is a lazy slob who is only redeemed by greed.” M & W

“Men will never do good unless necessity drives them to it.”—Machiavelli, Discourses, I.3 (p. 112).

“Humanistic management, on the other-hand, is based on the idea that the average worker is a model human being, intelligent, creative, and self-motivating.” M & W

Human beings are "symbol-using animals" (Kenneth Burke) and are “stubborn seekers of meaning” (John Gardner quoted in Peters and Waterman)

The picture of the organization

A machine: a place for everyone and everyone in their place

A bureaucracy: “capable of attaining the highest degree of efficiency and is in this sense formally the most rational known means of carrying out imperative control over human beings”

A place of personal fulfillment and self-actualization: “an organization in which human values are as important as production values. The pyramid structure may still apply, but . . . individuals participate in organizational decision making and evaluation” (Littlejohn on Argyris’ picture of the ideal organization)

“Systems composed of ideas, the meaning of which must be managed” (Joanne Martin quoted in Peters and Waterman).

The picture of the manager

“The job of the manager is to break down jobs into their component parts, so that even the dumbest persons can master them, and design incentive systems, so that even the laziest will exert themselves.” M & W

“The job of the manager is to ensure that work is interesting enough to bring out the best in the firm’s employees, by dint of devolving decisions to shop-floor workers, creating self-managing teams, and encouraging workers to make suggestions about how the company might be improved.” M & W

The manager is a rhetorical actor: “The [leader] not only creates the rational and tangible aspects of organisations, such as structure and technology, but also is the creator of symbols, ideologies, language, beliefs, rituals, and myths” (Andrew Pettigrew quoted in Peters and Waterman).

Key ideas

Specialization

Hierarchicalization

Centralization

Higher order needs over monetary incentives

Social factors affect behavior.

Communication affects behavior.

Decentralization

Flattened Structures

Participatory Decision Making

Use of informal communication networks

Meaning

Culture

Symbolic Influence

Administrative Rhetoric

Examples

Taylor and Scientific Management

Weber and Bureaucracy

Reengineering, which tried to adapt Taylorism to the age of the computer.

Hawthorne Effect with Elton Mayo, Kurt Lewin

Higher-level needs with Maslow, Herzberg, Argyris

Contingency Leadership by Feidler

Barnard, the last of the “practical theorists”

Theory Y by McGregor

Empowerment by Peters

Peters and Waterman, In Search of Excellence

Collins and Porras, Built to Last

Means of Motivation and Control

Rules

Rewards

Roles

Fulfill higher order needs

More than money

Do more things

Do better things

Change the group

Unobtrusive Control—Precision Instruments of Management

“Participative Culture Making”

Symbolic Means of Influence

Metaphor

Myth

Rituals and Ceremonies

Purpose

Values

Vision

Leadership

“The Commander”

Focus on management over leadership

Fayol’s Five Functions

Plan

Command

Control

Coordinate

Organize

Transactional

Contingent

Employee-centered

Communication-centered

Visionary

Transformational

Not necessarily charismatic, but a “clock builder”

Strengths

Provides the structure that all human beings need.

Can produce efficient output in for a limited time in stable situations.

If properly applied, need not create labor-management tension.

More precise instruments of influence

Higher job satisfaction

More effective than traditional in rapidly changing environments

Provides significant influential “leverage”—a lot for a little in the long run.

Fills in the gaps that can never be covered by traditional instruments of management.

Necessary to gain an advantage in a fluid, competitive business environment.

Can effectively counter the over-emphasis on self-interest that can arise from traditional and relational methods.

Weaknesses

Frequent communication breakdowns

Filtering Paradox

Structural Barriers

Trained Incapacity

Ill-suited for better-educated employees

Sacrifices flexibility and responsiveness for consistency and predictability

No support for any improvement in productivity or performance

Can become self-defeating if not tied to clear objectives

Fails to account for affect of structure and function

Assumes that happiness and the absence of conflict are necessary

To be effective, requires skills most managers don’t have.

Does not address the specific discursive mechanics of management.

Difficult to use because of the wide number of variables.

If not complete, can be rejected by employees and have a negative effect.

Can lead to abuses as owners and managers use culture to advance partisan interests.